Review Open Access Logo

Antibacterial cellulose-based aerogels for wound healing application: A review

Esam Bashir Yahya 1, * ORCID logo
Marwa Mohammed Alzalouk 2
Khalifa A. Alfallous 3
Abdullah F. Abogmaza 4
  1. School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia
  2. Medical Technology College, Misurata University, 2478 Misurata Libya
  3. Faculty of Science, Al-asmarya Islamic University, Zliten 00218, Libya
  4. aculty of Science, Al-asmarya Islamic University, Zliten 00218, Libya
Correspondence to: Esam Bashir Yahya, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1599-1754. Email: [email protected].
Volume & Issue: Vol. 7 No. 10 (2020) | Page No.: 4032-4040 | DOI: 10.15419/bmrat.v7i10.637
Published: 2020-10-12

Online metrics


Statistics from the website

  • HTML Views: 13202
  • PDF Views: 3777
  • XML Views: 0

Statistics from Dimensions

Copyright The Author(s) 2024. This article is published with open access by BioMedPress. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC-BY 4.0) which permits any use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and the source are credited. 

Abstract

Aerogels have been steadily developed since its first invention to become one of the most promising materials for various medical and non-medical applications. It has been prepared from organic and inorganic materials, in pure forms or composites. Cellulose-based aerogels are considered one of the promising materials in biomedical applications due to their availability, degradability, biocompatibility and non-cytotoxicity compared to conventional silica or metal-based aerogels. The unique properties of such materials permit their utilization in drug delivery, biosensing, tissue engineering scaffolds, and wound dressing. This review presents a summary of aerogel development as well as the properties and applications of aerogels. Herein, we further discuss the recent works pertaining to utilization of cellulose-based aerogels for antibacterial delivery.

Introduction

Aerogels have been defined as materials composed of more than 99% air; they can be prepared from various organic or inorganic precursors and are often manufactured in multi-shape structures to serve different needs1. S. Kistler made the initial aerogel in 1931, as a result of replacing the liquid of the gel with gas without changing the intact structure. He used silica gel as a precursor material in his first preparation2. A few years later, aerogels were steadily developed and were prepared from organic, inorganic, hybrid and even different composites of materials. Biopolymers and, particularly, cellulose have gained a lot of popularity among scientists in terms of aerogel preparation, especially in biomedical applications. They have been utilized in wound healing, tissue engineering scaffolds, and drug delivery3, 4. Even non-medical applications have benefited from aerogels. Many scientists have joined the race to develop and fabricate such materials to serve humanity in many applications, including insulation5, 6, absorption7, 8, packaging9, 10, supercapacitors11, 12, catalysts13, 14, energy storage15, 16, filtration17, 18, conduction 19, 20, sensing21, 22, cleaning, and adsorption of wastes23, 24. Figure 1 shows the summary of different non-medical applications of aerogels. However, despite the huge number of developed aerogels, the commercialization process has been still relatively slow. Meanwhile, the number of companies producing aerogels is steadily increasing to provide high performance materials for different applications.

Figure 1

Summary of different non-medical applications of aerogels since its invention with examples of the most commonly used types of aerogel for each application.

Cellulose is the most abundant polymer on earth. It have been obtained mainly from plant and bacterial sources25. However, it is one of the most used polymers in aerogel preparation due to its unique properties, such as biodegradability, biocompatibility and negligible cytotoxicity26. Cellulose-based aerogels have been widely used in many medical applications, such as biosensing, drug delivery, tissue scaffolding, and antibacterial materials for wound dressing.

There are already several excellent review articles discussing cellulose-based aerogels, such as one by Abdul Khalil, H. P. S .1 which further discusses the chronological development of aerogels and the biomedical applications of cellulose nanofiber-based aerogels. Other reviews have discussed the chemistry and physics beyond their synthesis and their different applications27, 28. However, not much has been investigated regarding the use of cellulose-based aerogels for antibacterial delivery or wound dressing. We anticipate that many more new aerogel types will be discovered in the next few years. Many other new combinations need to be discovered. Indeed, the interest in aerogels just keeps growing as indicated by the number of publications each year. This current review provides an overview on aerogels and their development, we well as discusses the recent works using cellulose-based aerogels for antibacterial delivery.

Development of aerogels

Since its invention back in the 1930s, research studies on aerogels have steadily risen. The father/founder of aerogel, S. Kistler, described his first invention as replacement of the liquid in the gel with gas, while keeping the gel's structure intact29. One year later, the same scientist prepared many aerogels from different materials, including metal oxides and some organic materials, following the same approach. Figure 2 summarizes some of the important events regarding the evolution of aerogels. As a liquid-free network, aerogels can be defined as solid, ultra-lightweight and lucid open porous networks obtained from the gel following the removal of the liquid without any significant modification in the network structure30. The physical, chemical and mechanical properties of this network depends on the material or group of materials that form this network.

Figure 2

The main chronological events of aerogel development since its first invention until the present.

The chemistry of aerogels is very flexible and has been reported to be altered by many factors, such as the precursor materials31, their ratios32, preparation approaches33, and so on. The pore size and surface area of aerogels can also be tailored34. Furthermore, different functional groups have been implemented in the aerogels to provide desired mechanical and physico-chemical properties35. Particularly, hybrid aerogels are able to have their properties modified and new functionalities added, depending on the target application. On the other hand, if the properties of aerogels were improved, new applications which were impossible in the past would be enabled in the future36.

Cellulose-based aerogels

Cellulose is one of the most utilized biopolymers in aerogel preparations; studies on biopolymers have been motivated by the search for sustainable precursors instead of using traditional oil-based or synthetic polymers3. Cellulose has many advantages over other conventional biopolymers, namely that it is among the most abundant biopolymers on earth and can be extracted from different sources37, 38, 39. Apart from plants, cellulose has been extracted using static culturing of many types of bacteria, such as 40. Bacterial cellulose has the advantage of having a higher degree of crystallinity41 and occurring in pure form without any impurities, such as lignin and hemicellulose. Nanocellulose is a term referring to cellulose materials that have nanoscale dimensions (1 to 100 nm), which include either cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) or cellulose nanofibers (CNF)42. Both CNC and CNF display unique properties, including high surface area and high strength, as well as tunable surface chemistry, allowing for controlled interactions with other polymers, nanoparticles, biological materials and/or small molecules33.

Properties of cellulose-based aerogels

Cellulose-based aerogel is a highly porous nanostructured material which displays the typical features of aerogels with many advantages. Nano-cellulose materials, including cellulose nanofiber and cellulose nanocrystals, are attracting increasing interest among scientists. Indeed, every year, a large number of research studies are conducted on them. The unique properties of this material, including high mechanical strength, high degree of polymerization, high purity and high crystallinity, make it a promising material for preparing aerogels with characteristics of flexibility and pressure resistance43, 44. Zhang, T.45 compared the morphological structure of each of the CNF and CNC aerogels individually, and in different mixed ratios as presented in Figure 3. They reported that mixed (CNC and CNF) aerogels show better performance than the pure aerogels of each of them. However, all the aerogels that they prepared had 3D network structure and rich pores which were formed by the disorder of the growing ice crystals. It can be observed in the obtained SEM figures that there are some differences in the morphology; CNC-based aerogel is spherical in shape while the CNF-based aerogel is rice-shaped, which results from the longer filament of CNF compared to CNC.

Figure 3

SEM images of aerogels prepared using different ratios of cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) and cellulose nano fibers (CNF): (a) CNC/CNF (3:1), (b) CNC/CNF (1:3), (c) CNC/CNF (1:1), (d) CNC, (e) CNF. Adapted from Zhang, et al. (2018) with permission from Elsevier45.

The mechanical properties of aerogels have been reported to be affected by two main factors: precursor material and preparation method46. Cellulose is used to enhance the mechanical properties of many hybrid aerogels. J Yang . 47 reported that cellulose enhances the mechanical properties of the aerogel, and that the ratio of alginate cellulose has a significant effect on the mechanical properties. In addition, using cellulose as the precursor material in aerogel preparation has many beneficial properties, including the functional groups on the surface of the cellulose chain which is considered as a cross-linking agent for many other materials. The possibility of regenerating or reusing cellulose is another advantage of the material; additionally, the chemical modification of cellulose improves its mechanical strength and the structural characteristics of cellulose aerogels are relatively easy to generate48.

Biomedical applications of cellulose-based aerogels

Recently, with the revolution of nanotechnology, many methods have been developed to isolate nanofibers, nanocrystals and nanoparticles from different materials. Nanocellulose-based aerogels show great promise in a wide range of biomedical, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, separation, energy storage, construction, and food applications41. Edwards, J. V 49 used peptide nanocellulose aerogels for biosensing; they fabricated aerogels with high porosity of 99% to detect protease enzyme activity. Their findings in term of mass spectral analysis and the physical properties of prepared aerogels were reported to be suitable for interfacing with an intelligent protease sequestrant wound dressing application.

Cellulose-based aerogels have been also utilized in many regeneration studies to regenerate many tissues and organs, such as bone, skin and cartilage. Cellulose-based aerogels have been suggested to solve the issue of the potential complications associated with autografts since they have been widely used in tissue engineering scaffold preparations. DA Osorio 50 have used for the first time modified cellulose nanocrystal aerogels as viable bone tissue scaffolds. Their findings demonstrate that cellulose-based aerogels are flexible and porous, and can effectively facilitate bone growth after they are implanted in bone defects. Other medical applications have benefited from cellulose aerogels. For instance, J Zhao .51 used a combination of polyethylenimine (PEI)-grafted cellulose nanofibril aerogels for drug delivery, and reported that the materials are promising and can be used as new generation controlled drug delivery carriers. The unique pH and temperature-responsiveness of cellulose-based aerogels, together with their excellent physical, chemical and mechanical properties, as well as their biodegradability, biocompatibility and low cytotoxicity, offer a simple and safe alternative to the conventional systems (synthetic polymers). Table 1 shows a summary of biomedical applications of cellulose-based aerogels.

Table 1

Selected studies of different biomedical applications of cellulose based aerogels

ApplicationMaterialSummaryRef
Drug deliveryCNF aerogelsTested for oral controlled drug delivery & resulting of improved in bioavailability of drug.59
Cellulose triacetate aerogelTest the influences of the size and the distribution of drug, aerogel show high drug uptake and slow release rate63
Cellulose aerogelsEvaluated loading capacity and release kinetics, promising controlled drug release carriers by exhibiting a high-loading capacity61
BiosensingPeptide/ cellulosic aerogelSuccessfully used a micro-titer enzyme assay to determine the response, sensitivity, and kinetic behavior of the biosensor.60
Prussian blue/cellulose aerogelTested as an orally administered drug, which was able to detect and remove ingested cesium ions from the gastrointestinal tract.62
CNC aerogelEvaluated a sensor to detect human neutrophil elastase for healing chronic wounds.52
Skin tissue repairBacterial celluloseThe using of aerogel had faster and better healing effect and less inflammatory response.53
Nanocellulose aerogelNovel invention a promising process to fabricate bilayer aerogel for skin repair.54
Amoxicillin/ Cellulose aerogelGrafted amoxicillin onto the cellulose, and observed enhancement of the antimicrobial activity against fungus bacteria.55
Tissue scaffoldsCNF/ PEGDA aerogelPossess good mechanical and biocompatibility, tested cells tightly adhere and spread on the aerogel with good differentiation and viability.56
Cellulose/ gelatin aerogelSurface-modified scaffold for skin regeneration, showed good adhesion and proliferation of keratinocytes during 7 days of incubation.57
Pure CNC aerogelVarious scaffolds structures successfully printed using direct ink write technique.58

Antibacterial applications of cellulose-based aerogels

Many antibacterial-based materials have been immobilized inside the nanocellulose network upon the formation of aerogels; these materials retain their antibacterial activity resulting from the antibacterial aerogel. Various plant extracts and essential oils have been reported to possess extraordinary antibacterial activities. Yahya .64 reported that peel extract had stronger antibacterial activity than many common antibiotics. The authors tested their extract on three different species of bacteria and demonstrated it had strong antibacterial activity. Use of natural extracts together with cellulose-based aerogel is preferable in medical applications to avoid synthetic and chemical ingredients.

In another study, Khan .65 used silver nanoparticles and enzymes as antibacterial materials and immobilized these materials inside CNF aerogels. The authors evaluated their aerogel composites for their potential use in clinical trials. The results indicated the aerogels were non-toxic and biodegradable. Thus, the authors reported that cellulose nanofibers are a suitable support for bioactive materials and are effective in protecting and retaining enzymatic and antibacterial activities. Lu 66 prepared high porous (90 – 95%) dialdehyde CNF/collagen composite aerogels which exhibited strong water absorption (up to 4000%) and good biocompatibility. This aerogel composite can be enhanced with addition of plant-based antibacterial material that can prevent bacterial growth. The high capacity of aerogels to absorb water lends support to their potential use in wound dressing. Shan .67 have loaded Amoxicillin antibiotic inside of cellulose aerogel, aiming for better performance after they controlled amoxicillin release. The antibiotic lost its effect against many types of bacteria due to the misuse of it; most of the bacteria had already developed resistance to this antibiotic. However, the authors reported that cellulose aerogels exhibited excellent antibacterial activity with the amoxicillin dose-dependent activity67. Immobilization of certain doses of antibiotic inside the aerogel network enhances the activity of the antibiotic, which has been demonstrated in a previous study 68.

Cellulose has a unique surface chemistry, permitting it to cross-link with many materials, including protein extracts, antibiotics, and even metal nanoparticles68. Zuguang 69 prepared hybrid cellulose-based aerogels using silver nanoparticles as antibacterial materials. The hybrid aerogel interestingly had a strong antibacterial effect against many bacterial species. The authors destroyed the crystalline region of cellulose and, partly, the oxidation of some groups to allow strong cross-linking of silver nanoparticles. This type of cellulose surface modification was done to enhance the ability of cellulose and prevent the potential release of nanoparticles that may cause some health risks in the long term. Many other studies have used silver nanoparticles, such as Salomoni . (2017) 70, Tang . (2018) 71 and Vijaya . (2017) 72, as antibacterial materials but due to the high cost of such materials and their potential health risk, they did not reach production or clinical trial stage. However, use of aerogels to immobilize the nanoparticles will significantly minimize the required dose to avoid their release and to facilitate the potential regeneration of the nanoparticles to be used over again. Henschen .73 prepared novel wet-stabilized aerogels that were able to retain their porosity after being soaked in water. In addition, their cellulose surface-modified based aerogels were able to adhere to more than 99% of bacteria from the aqueous suspension. Microscopy analysis confirmed that surface modifications have been done to cellulose to allow for bacterial adherence73.

The findings of this study show the potential of creating 3D materials that have high efficiency to adsorb the bacteria and high porosity. Thus, the great surface area of aerogels in combination with their open structures gives the material high potential for bacterial removal. Use of cellulose-based aerogels as antibacterial materials has many environmentally advantages, such as being green, sustainable, biodegradable, abundant and non-environmentally taxing74. Numerous studies have evaluated biocompatibility and cytotoxicity of cellulose-based aerogels 56, 75, 76, 77, and concluded that there is no cytotoxicity that has been observed with cellulose-based aerogels. Cellulose aerogels facilitate cell adhesion and viability, and enhance cell growth and proliferation. In terms of wound dressing, as mentioned earlier from toxicity studies, cellulose aerogels can be safely incorporated with antibacterial substances and used as promising materials for wound dressing and healing.

The unique physical, chemical and mechanical properties, as well as biocompatibility, of cellulose-based aerogels make them excellent candidates for many purposes in the medical field. Hence, their biocompatibility enables them to be incorporated with other natural materials78 to obtain a green composite with specific properties. Essential oils have the potential to cross-link with cellulose particles79. R Moghimi 80 prepared antibacterial cellulose-based edible films for food packaging, using thymus essential oil as an antibacterial ingredient inside the film. Following this strategy, it was shown to be environmentally safe for producing green and sustainable materials for many applications. Another potential utilization of aerogels, as they are composed of up to 99% air81 and per the previous explained strategy, is that it is possible to use antibacterial aerogels to cure chronic diabetic wounds and prevent the amputation of many limbs that are mainly caused by growth of anaerobic bacteria82. Antibacterial aerogels will provide clean wounds and inhibit aerobic bacterial growth, without closing or preventing the aeration which is necessary for wound healing83.

However, in order to propose the safe use of cellulose-based aerogels for biomedical applications, it is important to evaluate the toxicity and fate of these materials. Recently, some authors raised important concerns that justify the study of bio-interactions and the possible impact to humans upon the exposure to nanocellulose materials. This would provide consistent and useful knowledge that can guide the regulations84, 85, 86. Most of the biological impact of materials have been studied by cytotoxicity evaluation assays. Acute and/or chronic toxicity of cellulose, nanocellulose-based materials during long-term exposure, occupational exposure at normal conditions, and exacerbation of pre-existing disease conditions must be studied. Furthermore, the concerns about using nanoparticles in medical applications must be further investigated in long-term studies. Cellulose nanomaterials and aerogels have both been prepared with different techniques, using a wide range of pre-treatment and treatment chemicals, resulting in the same or modified final materials. Cytotoxicity studies have not yet been conducted for all the materials that have been fabricated. Another concern about the biological effects is that most of previous studies have evaluated the cytotoxicity of the materials using only one cell type and for a short period of time, which raises concerns about the possible effects on other cell types, in the short term and long term.

Conclusion

Cellulose-based aerogels have sustainability, renewability, biocompatibility, and biodegradability of cellulose but also have excellent properties such as low density, high porosity, and a high specific surface area, enabling them to be utilized in many applications including antibacterial applications. The materials have been successfully demonstrated for their ability to be used as antibacterial agents and for skin and tissue repair. This review discussed some applications of using cellulose-based aerogels as an antibacterial carrier, and highlighted the concerns about the possible biological effects of these materials. There is a need for more animal-based long-term studies on cellulose aerogels to eliminate concerns and ensure safety of their use in humans.

Abbreviations

CNC: cellulose nanocrystal

CNF: cellulose nano fiber

PEGDA: polyethylene glycol diacrylate

Acknowledgments

None.

Author’s contributions

Conceptualisation, Esam Bashir Yahya.; Software, Esam Bashir Yahya and Marwa Mohammed Alzalouk.; Resources, Khalifa A.Alfallous, and Abdullah F Abogmaza.; Writing—review and editing, Esam Bashir Yahya. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work did not receive any financially support.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

References

  1. K.H. Abdul. A Review on Plant Cellulose Nanofibre-Based Aerogels for Biomedical Applications. Polymers 2020; 12 (8) : 1759-
  2. C. Ziegler. Modern inorganic aerogels. . Angewandte Chemie International Edition 2017; 56 (43) : 13200-13221.
  3. S. Zhao. Biopolymer aerogels and foams: Chemistry, properties, and applications. Angewandte Chemie International Edition 2018; 57 (26) : 7580-7608.
  4. I. Surya. Plasticizer Enhancement on the Miscibility and Thermomechanical Properties of Polylactic Acid-Chitin-Starch Composites. Polymers 2020; 12 (1) : 115-
  5. S. Yang. Inhibition of algae growth on HVDC polymeric insulators using antibiotic-loaded silica aerogel nanocomposites. Polymer Degradation and Stability 2018; 155262-270.
  6. S. Ren. Preparation and characterization of organic-inorganic hybrid ZrOC/PF aerogel used as high-temperature insulator. Ceramics International 2020; 46 (5) : 6326-6332.
  7. Z. Wang. Ultralight, highly compressible and fire-retardant graphene aerogel with self-adjustable electromagnetic wave absorption. Carbon 2018; 1391126-1135.
  8. Z. Talebi. Silica aerogel/polyester blankets for efficient sound absorption in buildings. Construction and Building Materials 2019; 22076-89.
  9. J.P. Oliveira. Cellulose nanocrystals from rice and oat husks and their application in aerogels for food packaging. International journal of biological macromolecules 2019; 124175-184.
  10. C. Fontes-Candia. Superabsorbent food packaging bioactive cellulose-based aerogels from Arundo donax waste biomass. Food Hydrocolloids 2019; 96151-160.
  11. C. Wang. Synthesis and characterization of 3D CoMoO 4/rGO aerogel for supercapacitor electrodes. in 2018 19th International Conference on Electronic Packaging Technology (ICEPT). IEEE 2018;
  12. G. Zu. Nanocellulose-derived highly porous carbon aerogels for supercapacitors. Carbon 2016; 99203-211.
  13. J. Arfaoui. Novel V2O5-CeO2-TiO2-SO42− nanostructured aerogel catalyst for the low temperature selective catalytic reduction of NO by NH3 in excess O2. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental 2018; 224264-275.
  14. V. Deerattrakul. Characterization of supported Cu-Zn/graphene aerogel catalyst for direct CO2 hydrogenation to methanol: Effect of hydrothermal temperature on graphene aerogel synthesis. Catalysis Today 2018; 314154-163.
  15. W. Xia. High-performance energy storage and conversion materials derived from a single metal-organic framework/graphene aerogel composite. Nano letters 2017; 17 (5) : 2788-2795.
  16. J. Yang. Cellulose/graphene aerogel supported phase change composites with high thermal conductivity and good shape stability for thermal energy storage. Carbon 2016; 9850-57.
  17. J. Dai. TiO2-alginate composite aerogels as novel oil/water separation and wastewater remediation filters. Composites Part B: Engineering 2019; 160480-487.
  18. J. Gajda. Examination of filters modified with aerogel synthesized based on solvent mixtures. Katedra Inżynierii Procesów Zintegrowanych 2018;
  19. F. Qian. Ultralight conductive silver nanowire aerogels. Nano letters 2017; 17 (12) : 7171-7176.
  20. F. An. Highly anisotropic graphene/boron nitride hybrid aerogels with long-range ordered architecture and moderate density for highly thermally conductive composites. Carbon 2018; 126119-127.
  21. S. Dolai, S.K. Bhunia, R. Jelinek. Carbon-dot-aerogel sensor for aromatic volatile organic compounds. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical 2017; 241607-613.
  22. X. Xu. Copper nanowire-based aerogel with tunable pore structure and its application as flexible pressure sensor. ACS applied materials & interfaces 2017; 9 (16) : 14273-14280.
  23. F. Jiang, D.M. Dinh, Y.L. Hsieh. Adsorption and desorption of cationic malachite green dye on cellulose nanofibril aerogels. Carbohydrate polymers 2017; 173286-294.
  24. H. Zhang. Super light 3D hierarchical nanocellulose aerogel foam with superior oil adsorption. Journal of colloid and interface science 2019; 536245-251.
  25. J. Gong. Research on cellulose nanocrystals produced from cellulose sources with various polymorphs. RSC advances 2017; 7 (53) : 33486-33493.
  26. H. Dong. The dual effects of carboxymethyl cellulose on the colloidal stability and toxicity of nanoscale zero-valent iron. Chemosphere 2016; 1441682-1689.
  27. T. Budtova. Cellulose II aerogels: A review. Cellulose 2019; 26 (1) : 81-121.
  28. C. Wan. Functional nanocomposites from sustainable regenerated cellulose aerogels: A review. Chemical Engineering Journal 2019; 359459-475.
  29. S.S. Kistler. Coherent expanded aerogels and jellies. Nature 1931; 127 (3211) : 741-741.
  30. C.A. García-González. An opinion paper on aerogels for biomedical and environmental applications. Molecules 2019; 24 (9) : 1815-
  31. M. Alnaief, R. Obaidat, H. Mashaqbeh. Effect of processing parameters on preparation of carrageenan aerogel microparticles. Carbohydrate polymers 2018; 180264-275.
  32. A. Arenillas. Properties of Carbon Aerogels and Their Organic Precursors, in Organic and Carbon Gels. Springer 2019; 87-121.
  33. K.J. France, T. Hoare, E.D. Cranston. Review of hydrogels and aerogels containing nanocellulose. Chemistry of Materials 2017; 29 (11) : 4609-4631.
  34. L. Hu. Step-freeze-drying method for carbon aerogels: a study of the effects on microstructure and mechanical property. RSC advances 2019; 9 (18) : 9931-9936.
  35. D. Mahadik. Synthesis of multi-functional porous superhydrophobic trioxybenzene cross-linked silica aerogels with improved textural properties. Ceramics International 2020;
  36. I. Smirnova, P. Gurikov. Aerogel production: Current status, research directions, and future opportunities. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids 2018; 134228-233.
  37. M. Yazdanbakhsh. Alpha-Cellulose Extraction from Wheat Bran for Preparing Cellulose Nanofibers. American Journal of Oil and Chemical Technologies 2017; 5 (1) :
  38. L. Manzato. Optimization of cellulose extraction from jute fiber by Box-Behnken design. Fibers and Polymers 2018; 19 (2) : 289-296.
  39. F. Meng. Kinetic analysis of cellulose extraction from banana pseudo-stem by liquefaction in polyhydric alcohols. Industrial Crops and Products 2019; 137377-385.
  40. S. Lotfiman. Influence of date syrup as a carbon source on bacterial cellulose production by Acetobacter xylinum 0416. Advances in Polymer Technology 2018; 37 (4) : 1085-1091.
  41. L.Y. Long, Y.X. Weng, Y.Z. Wang. Cellulose aerogels: Synthesis, applications, and prospects. Polymers 2018; 10 (6) : 623-
  42. P. Phanthong. Nanocellulose: Extraction and application. Carbon Resources Conversion 2018; 1 (1) : 32-43.
  43. Z. Zhang. Ultralightweight and flexible silylated nanocellulose sponges for the selective removal of oil from water. Chemistry of Materials 2014; 26 (8) : 2659-2668.
  44. A. Nuryawan. Enhancement of Oil Palm Waste Nanoparticles on the Properties and Characterization of Hybrid Plywood Biocomposites. Polymers 2020; 12 (5) : 1007-
  45. T. Zhang. Characterization of the nano-cellulose aerogel from mixing CNF and CNC with different ratio. Materials Letters 2018; 229103-106.
  46. C. Simón-Herrero. Effects of freeze-drying conditions on aerogel properties. Journal of Materials Science 2016; 51 (19) : 8977-8985.
  47. J. Yang. Super-elastic and highly hydrophobic/superoleophilic sodium alginate/cellulose aerogel for oil/water separation. Cellulose 2018; 25 (6) : 3533-3544.
  48. O.A. Madyan. Enhancing mechanical properties of clay aerogel composites: An overview. Composites Part B: Engineering 2016; 98314-329.
  49. J.V. Edwards. Preparation, characterization and activity of a peptide-cellulosic aerogel protease sensor from cotton. Sensors 2016; 16 (11) : 1789-
  50. D.A. Osorio. Cross-linked cellulose nanocrystal aerogels as viable bone tissue scaffolds. Acta biomaterialia 2019; 87152-165.
  51. J. Zhao. Polyethylenimine-grafted cellulose nanofibril aerogels as versatile vehicles for drug delivery. ACS applied materials & interfaces 2015; 7 (4) : 2607-2615.
  52. J.V. Edwards. Structure/function analysis of cotton-based peptide-cellulose conjugates: spatiotemporal/kinetic assessment of protease aerogels compared to nanocrystalline and paper cellulose. International journal of molecular sciences 2018; 19 (3) : 840-
  53. L. Fu. Skin tissue repair materials from bacterial cellulose by a multilayer fermentation method. Journal of Materials Chemistry 2012; 22 (24) : 12349-12357.
  54. R. Ghafari. Fabrication and characterization of novel bilayer scaffold from nanocellulose based aerogel for skin tissue engineering applications. International journal of biological macromolecules 2019; 136796-803.
  55. S. Ye. Flexible amoxicillin-grafted bacterial cellulose sponges for wound dressing: in vitro and in vivo evaluation. ACS applied materials & interfaces 2018; 10 (6) : 5862-5870.
  56. A. Tang. Nanocellulose/PEGDA aerogel scaffolds with tunable modulus prepared by stereolithography for three-dimensional cell culture. Journal of Biomaterials Science, Polymer Edition 2019; 30 (10) : 797-814.
  57. S. Khan. Preparation and structural characterization of surface modified microporous bacterial cellulose scaffolds: A potential material for skin regeneration applications in vitro and in vivo. International journal of biological macromolecules 2018; 1171210.
  58. V.C.F. Li. Direct ink write (DIW) 3D printed cellulose nanocrystal aerogel structures. Scientific reports 2017; 7 (1) : 1-8.
  59. J. Bhandari. Cellulose nanofiber aerogel as a promising biomaterial for customized oral drug delivery. International journal of nanomedicine 2017; 122021-
  60. K. Fontenot. Peptide Derivatized Cellulosic Aerogel From Cotton As A Point Of Care Diagnostic Protease Sensor. In Abstracts Of Papers Of The American Chemical Society. Amer Chemical Soc 1155 16th St, Nw, Washington, Dc 20036 Usa 2016;
  61. S.F. Chin, F.B. Jimmy, S.C. Pang. Fabrication of Cellulose Aerogel from Sugarcane Bagasse as Drug Delivery Carriers. Journal of Physical Science 2016; 27 (3) :
  62. I. Lee. Porous 3D Prussian blue/cellulose aerogel as a decorporation agent for removal of ingested cesium from the gastrointestinal tract. Scientific reports, 2018. 8(1): p. 1-14. .
  63. C. Wang, S. Okubayashi. 3D aerogel of cellulose triacetate with supercritical antisolvent process for drug delivery. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids 2019; 14833-41.
  64. E.B. Yahya. Evaluation Of In-Vitroantibacterial Activity Of Aqueous And Alcoholic Extracts Of The Peels Punica Granatum And Olea Europaea Leaves. Journal Of Sciences And Technologies (Medical Science) 2018; 2 (1) :
  65. K.M. Uddin. Retention of lysozyme activity by physical immobilization in nanocellulose aerogels and antibacterial effects. Cellulose 2017; 24 (7) : 2837-2848.
  66. T. Lu. Composite aerogels based on dialdehyde nanocellulose and collagen for potential applications as wound dressing and tissue engineering scaffold. Composites Science and Technology 2014; 94132-138.
  67. S. Ye. Morphological, Release and Antibacterial Performances of Amoxicillin-Loaded Cellulose Aerogels. Molecules 2018; 23 (8) : 2082-
  68. J.R. Navarro. Surface-Initiated Controlled Radical Polymerization Approach to In Situ Cross-Link Cellulose Nanofibrils with Inorganic Nanoparticles. Biomacromolecules 2020; 21 (5) : 1952-1961.
  69. Z. Shen. An ultra-light antibacterial bagasse-AgNP aerogel. Journal of Materials Chemistry B 2017; 5 (6) : 1155-1158.
  70. R. Salomoni. Antibacterial effect of silver nanoparticles in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Nanotechnology, science and applications 2017; 10115-
  71. S. Tang, J. Zheng. Antibacterial activity of silver nanoparticles: structural effects. Advanced healthcare materials 2018; 7 (13) : 1701503-
  72. J.J. Vijaya. Bioreduction potentials of dried root of Zingiber officinale for a simple green synthesis of silver nanoparticles: antibacterial studies. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology 2017; 17762-68.
  73. J. Henschen. Contact-active antibacterial aerogels from cellulose nanofibrils. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces 2016; 146415-422.
  74. Q. Tarrés. Research on the Strengthening Advantages on Using Cellulose Nanofibers as Polyvinyl Alcohol Reinforcement. Polymers 2020; 12 (4) : 974-
  75. P. Kumari. Cellulose nanofibers from lignocellulosic biomass of lemongrass using enzymatic hydrolysis: characterization and cytotoxicity assessment. DARU Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 2019; 27 (2) : 683-693.
  76. S.F. Souza. Cell interactions and cytotoxic studies of cellulose nanofibers from Curauá natural fibers. Carbohydrate polymers 2018; 20187-95.
  77. H.R. Nordli. Producing ultrapure wood cellulose nanofibrils and evaluating the cytotoxicity using human skin cells. Carbohydrate polymers 2016; 15065-73.
  78. X. Shen. Hydrogels based on cellulose and chitin: fabrication, properties, and applications. Green Chemistry 2016; 18 (1) : 53-75.
  79. I.L. Liakos. Electrospun fiber pads of cellulose acetate and essential oils with antimicrobial activity. Nanomaterials 2017; 7 (4) : 84-
  80. R. Moghimi, A. Aliahmadi, H. Rafati. Antibacterial hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose edible films containing nanoemulsions of Thymus daenensis essential oil for food packaging. Carbohydrate polymers 2017; 175241-248.
  81. S. Montes, H. Maleki. Aerogels and their applications. Colloidal Metal Oxide Nanoparticles, Elsevier 2020; 337-399.
  82. S.G. Pereira. Microbiota of chronic diabetic wounds: ecology, impact, and potential for innovative treatment strategies. Frontiers in microbiology 2017; 81791-
  83. C. Wang. Engineering bioactive self-healing antibacterial exosomes hydrogel for promoting chronic diabetic wound healing and complete skin regeneration. Theranostics 2019; 9 (1) : 65-
  84. S. Camarero-Espinosa. Elucidating the potential biological impact of cellulose nanocrystals. Fibers 2016; 4 (3) : 21-
  85. A.B. Seabra. Cellulose nanocrystals as carriers in medicine and their toxicities: A review. Carbohydrate polymers 2018; 181514-527.
  86. C. Endes. A critical review of the current knowledge regarding the biological impact of nanocellulose. Journal of nanobiotechnology 2016; 14 (1) : 78-

Comments